Write short note on 1)Cyber law 2)Satellite 3)Data dictionary 4)SQL 5)E-commerce

Write short note on

1)Cyber law 2)Satellite 3)Data dictionary 4)SQL 5)E-commerce

ans:-
1)cyber law:-
Cyberlaw or Internet law is a term that encapsulates the legal issues related to use of the Internet. Cyber laws have become essential in view of the rapid developments in information technology. Online communication has given rise to a new global commerce .Information Technology (IT) is changing almost all aspects of human activity like communication, trade, culture, education, entertainment, and knowledge. With the rapid advances in computer technology over the past few years, there has been increasing concern in many countries for the need to develop and modernize the law in order to take full advantage of technological improvements and at the same time to guarantee that states can respond to computer crime and related criminal law issues associated with these developments.

2) satellite:

In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an object which has been placed into orbit by human endeavor. Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as the Moon.
Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems. Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, altitude control and orbit control
satellite has on board computer to control and monitor system.
Additionally, it has radio antennae (receiver and transmitter) with which it can communicate with ground crew.
Most of the satellites have attitude control system(ACS).It keeps the satellite in right direction.
Common types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites. Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites.
Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, and are classified in a number of ways. Well-known (overlapping) classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit.

3) data dictionary:

Database users and application developers can benefit from an authoritative data dictionary document that catalogs the organization, contents, and conventions of one or more databases. The term "data dictionary" is used by many, including myself, to denote a separate set of tables that describes the application tables. The Data Dictionary contains such information as column names, types, and sizes, but also descriptive information such as titles, captions, primary keys, foreign keys, and hints to the user interface about how to display the field.

A super-simple beginning Data Dictionary might look like this:

Among other items of information, it records (1) what data is stored, (2) name, description, and characteristics of each data element, (3) types of relationships between data elements, (4) access rights and frequency of access. Also called system dictionary when used in the context of a system design.

A data dictionary document also may include further information describing how data elements are encoded. One of the advantages of well-designed data dictionary documentation is that it helps to establish consistency throughout a complex database, or across a large collection of federated databases

4) e-commerce:-

E-commerce is a transaction of buying or selling online. Electronic commerce draws on technologies such as mobile commerce, electronic funds transfer, supply chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory management systems, and automated data collection systems. Modern electronic commerce typically uses the World Wide Web for at least one part of the transaction's life cycle although it may also use other technologies such as e-mail.

E-commerce businesses may employ some or all of the following:

Online shopping web sites for retail sales direct to consumers
Providing or participating in online marketplaces, which process third-party business-to-consumer or consumer-to-consumer sales
Business-to-business buying and selling
Gathering and using demographic data through web contacts and social media
Business-to-business (B2B) electronic data interchange
Marketing to prospective and established customers by e-mail or fax (for example, with newsletters)
Engaging in pretail for launching new products and services
Online financial exchanges for currency exchanges or trading purposes

What is Internet? Explain its advantages an disadvantages.

q)What is Internet? Explain its advantages an disadvantages.
ans:-

Internet is a web of networks i.e. interconnection of large number of computers throughout the world. The computers are connected (wired or wireless via satellite) in such a way that anybody from anywhere can access anything/ information. It is the largest network in the world just like a communication service provided by different companies. It is not limited in a room or a building or just an office. But by just sitting on a chair in one corner we can access the information, we can go for meeting or conference or shopping etc. while accessing the information from remote computers, it seems that a user is retrieving information from inside the cpu/hard disk. It does not take more time to fetch the information. While getting the data/packets, all the computers use a common rule called protocol (TCP/IP). Without this, even a single computer can not communicate. The Internet can be considered as a super highway with multi lanes and with high traffic of data without letting it jam.

Internet, which stands for “International Network” was coined first time by Arpanet as well as DARPAnet, lead by scientist Dr. J.C.R. Licklider a U.S. Department of Defense project to create a nationwide computer network that would continue to function in 1962 AD. Later on gradual development went on by other different scientists. Firstly, it was tested to share research papers by different scientist and from different location throughout the universities but later (about two decades) different other organizations used for multi tasks.

Uses/advantages of Internet:-

It has many advantages and can not be mentioned by just writing here. But to know how it works and where it is used, let’s see some.

File sharing/transferring:-

A file can be put on a "Shared Location" or onto a File Server for instant use by colleagues does not matter what is a size of file and how many will use it. Mirror servers and peer-to-peer networks can be used to ease the load of data transfer.

Internet banking:-

We know that almost all banks now-a-days are using this technology for its customers as an extra facility. Internet Banking/ Online Banking allows bank customers to do financial transactions on a website operated by the banks. The customers can do almost any kind of transaction on the secured websites. They can check their account balance, transfer funds, pay bills, etc. but security is a major issue for this.

Relay of information/communication:-

The biggest advantage of that internet is offering of information. The internet and the World Wide Web has made it easy for anyone to access information, and it can be of any type, as the internet is a sea of information. The internet and the World Wide Web have made it easy for anyone to access information, and it can be of any type. Any kind of information on any topic is available on the Internet. As well as, it can be greatly used for communication purpose for any distance.

Dating/Personals:

People are connecting with others through internet and finding their life partners. Internet not only helps to find the right person but also to continue the relationship.

disadvantages:-
Theft of Personal Information

If you use the Internet for online banking, social networking or other services, you may risk a theft to your personal information such as name, address, credit card number etc. Unscrupulous people can access this information through unsecured connections or by planting software and then use your personal details for their benefit. Needless to say, this may land you in serious trouble.

Spamming

Spamming refers to sending unwanted emails in bulk, which provide no purpose and needlessly obstruct the entire system. Such illegal activities can be very frustrating for you as it makes your Internet slower and less reliable.

Virus Threat:

Internet users are often plagued by virus attacks on their systems. Virus programs are inconspicuous and may get activated if you click a seemingly harmless link. Computers connected to Internet are very prone to targeted virus attacks and may end up crashing.

Pornography

Pornography is perhaps the biggest disadvantage of Internet. Internet allows you to access and download millions of pornographic photos, videos and other X-rated stuff. Such unrestricted access to porn can be detrimental for children and teenagers. It can even play havoc in marital and social lives of adults.

Social Disconnect

Thanks to Internet, people now only meet on social networks. More and more people are getting engulfed in virtual world and drifting apart from their friends and family. Even children prefer to play online games rather than going out and mingling with other kids. This may hamper a healthy social development in children.

Privacy:

There are many websites which we visit very frequently. In some sites we enter our personal information. This entry lets our privacy to be public which should not be. Mainly in social sites; it has been a great problem for all viewers or companies or customers. We know that the privacy should be confidential which they are not able to maintain.

q)Explain e-governance and its components.

q)Explain e-governance and its components.

ans:-
Electronic governance or e-governance is the application of information and communication technology (ICT) for delivering government services, exchange of information, communication transactions, integration of various stand-alone systems and services between government-to-customer (G2C), government-to-business (G2B), government-to-government (G2G) as well as back office processes and interactions within the entire government framework.

Its components are:
1)G2c:

The goal of government-to-customer (G2C) e-governance is to offer a variety of ICT services to citizens in an efficient and economical manner, and to strengthen the relationship between government and citizens using technology.

There are several methods of government-to-customer e-governance. Two-way communication allows citizens to instant message directly with public administrators, and cast remote electronic votes (electronic voting) and instant opinion voting.

2)G2E:

E-Governance to Employee partnership (G2E) Is one of four main primary interactions in the delivery model of E-Governance. It is the relationship between online tools, sources, and articles that help employees maintain communication with the government and their own companies. E-Governance relationship with Employees allows new learning technology in one simple place as the computer.

3)G2G:

In the field of networking, the Government Secure Intranet (GSI) puts in place a secure link between central government departments. It is an IP-based virtual private network based on broadband technology introduced in April 1998 and further upgraded in February 2004. Among other things it offers a variety of advanced services including file transfer and search facilities, directory services, email exchange facilities (both between network members and over the Internet) as well as voice and video services

4)G2B:

Government-to-Business (G2B) is the online non-commercial interaction between local and central government and the commercial business sector with the purpose of providing businesses information and advice on e-business 'best practices'. G2B:Refers to the conduction through the Internet between government agencies and trading companies.

Define computer crime and its various forms.

Define computer crime and its various forms.

ans:

Alternatively referred to as cyber crime, e-crime, electronic crime, or hi-tech crime. Computer crime is an act performed by a knowledgeable computer user, sometimes referred to as a hacker that illegally browses or steals a company's or individual's private information. In some cases, this person or group of individuals may be malicious and destroy or otherwise corrupt the computer or data files.

Below is a listing of the different types of computer crimes today. Clicking on any of the links below gives further information about each crime.

Child pornography - Making or distributing child pornography.
Cyber terrorism - Hacking, threats, and blackmailing towards a business or person.
Cyberbully or Cyberstalking - Harassing others online.
Creating Malware - Writing, creating, or distributing malware (e.g. viruses and spyware.)
Denial of Service attack - Overloading a system with so many requests it cannot serve normal requests.
Espionage - Spying on a person or business.
Fraud - Manipulating data, e.g. changing banking records to transfer money to an account.
Harvesting - Collect account or other account related information on other people.

source:

http://www.computerhope.com/jargon/c/compcrim.htm

What is AI?Explain its application areas.

What is AI?Explain its application areas.

Ans:-
AI:- Artificial intelligence is a science and technology based on disciplines such as Computer Science, Biology, Psychology, Linguistics, Mathematics, and Engineering. A major thrust of AI is in the development of computer functions associated with human intelligence, such as reasoning, learning, and problem solving.
Its application areas are:

game playing

You can buy machines that can play master level chess for a few hundred dollars. There is some AI in them, but they play well against people mainly through brute force computation--looking at hundreds of thousands of positions. To beat a world champion by brute force and known reliable heuristics requires being able to look at 200 million positions per second.

speech recognition

In the 1990s, computer speech recognition reached a practical level for limited purposes. Thus United Airlines has replaced its keyboard tree for flight information by a system using speech recognition of flight numbers and city names. It is quite convenient. On the the other hand, while it is possible to instruct some computers using speech, most users have gone back to the keyboard and the mouse as still more convenient.

understanding natural language

Just getting a sequence of words into a computer is not enough. Parsing sentences is not enough either. The computer has to be provided with an understanding of the domain the text is about, and this is presently possible only for very limited domains.

computer vision

The world is composed of three-dimensional objects, but the inputs to the human eye and computers' TV cameras are two dimensional. Some useful programs can work solely in two dimensions, but full computer vision requires partial three-dimensional information that is not just a set of two-dimensional views. At present there are only limited ways of representing three-dimensional information directly, and they are not as good as what humans evidently use.

expert systems

A ``knowledge engineer'' interviews experts in a certain domain and tries to embody their knowledge in a computer program for carrying out some task. How well this works depends on whether the intellectual mechanisms required for the task are within the present state of AI. When this turned out not to be so, there were many disappointing results. One of the first expert systems was MYCIN in 1974, which diagnosed bacterial infections of the blood and suggested treatments. It did better than medical students or practicing doctors, provided its limitations were observed. Namely, its ontology included bacteria, symptoms, and treatments and did not include patients, doctors, hospitals, death, recovery, and events occurring in time. Its interactions depended on a single patient being considered. Since the experts consulted by the knowledge engineers knew about patients, doctors, death, recovery, etc., it is clear that the knowledge engineers forced what the experts told them into a predetermined framework. In the present state of AI, this has to be true. The usefulness of current expert systems depends on their users having common sense.

heuristic classification

One of the most feasible kinds of expert system given the present knowledge of AI is to put some information in one of a fixed set of categories using several sources of information. An example is advising whether to accept a proposed credit card purchase. Information is available about the owner of the credit card, his record of payment and also about the item he is buying and about the establishment from which he is buying it (e.g., about whether there have been previous credit card frauds at this establishment).

courtesy

http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/whatisai/node3.html and tutorialspoint.com

What is AI? Explain its components.

q)What is AI? Explain its components.

ans:-

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is usually defined as the science of making computers do things that require intelligence when done by humans. AI has had some success in limited, or simplified, domains. However, the five decades since the inception of AI have brought only very slow progress, and early optimism concerning the attainment of human-level intelligence has given way to an appreciation of the profound difficulty of the problem.

AI components are:

Learning

Learning is distinguished into a number of different forms. The simplest is learning by trial-and-error. For example, a simple program for solving mate-in-one chess problems might try out moves at random until one is found that achieves mate. The program remembers the successful move and next time the computer is given the same problem it is able to produce the answer immediately. The simple memorising of individual items--solutions to problems, words of vocabulary, etc.--is known as rote learning.

Reasoning

To reason is to draw inferences appropriate to the situation in hand. Inferences are classified as either deductive or inductive. An example of the former is "Fred is either in the museum or the cafŽ; he isn't in the cafŽ; so he's in the museum", and of the latter "Previous accidents just like this one have been caused by instrument failure; so probably this one was caused by instrument failure". The difference between the two is that in the deductive case, the truth of the premisses guarantees the truth of the conclusion, whereas in the inductive case, the truth of the premiss lends support to the conclusion that the accident was caused by instrument failure, but nevertheless further investigation might reveal that, despite the truth of the premiss, the conclusion is in fact false.

Problem-solving

Problems have the general form: given such-and-such data, find x. A huge variety of types of problem is addressed in AI. Some examples are: finding winning moves in board games; identifying people from their photographs; and planning series of movements that enable a robot to carry out a given task.

Perception

In perception the environment is scanned by means of various sense-organs, real or artificial, and processes internal to the perceiver analyse the scene into objects and their features and relationships. Analysis is complicated by the fact that one and the same object may present many different appearances on different occasions, depending on the angle from which it is viewed, whether or not parts of it are projecting shadows, and so forth.

Language-understanding

A language is a system of signs having meaning by convention. Traffic signs, for example, form a mini-language, it being a matter of convention that, for example, the hazard-ahead sign means hazard ahead. This meaning-by-convention that is distinctive of language is very different from what is called natural meaning, exemplified in statements like 'Those clouds mean rain' and 'The fall in pressure means the valve is malfunctioning'.

etc.

courtesy

www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/pages/reference%20articles/what%20is%20ai.html

Explain the terms : polymorphism/inheritance/class/object.

q)Explain the terms : polymorphism/inheritance/class/object.

ans:-

These all are features of object oriented programming.Lets know about them.

Object:-

An object can be considered a "thing" with some attributes and can perform a set of related activities. The set of activities that the object performs defines the object's behavior. For example, the hand can grip something or a Student(object) can give the name or address. They all have state and behavior. like ,Dogs have state (name, color, breed, hungry) and behavior (barking, fetching, wagging tail). Bicycles also have state (current gear, current pedal cadence, current speed) and behavior (changing gear, changing pedal cadence, applying brakes).

For example if “customer” and “account.” are two objects in a program, then the customer object may send a message to the account object requesting for the bank balance. Each object contains data and code to manipulate the data. Objects can interact without having to know details of each other’s data or code.

Class:-

In the real world, you'll often find many individual objects all of the same kind. There may be thousands of other bicycles in existence, all of the same make and model. Each bicycle was built from the same set of blueprints and therefore contains the same components. In object-oriented terms, we say that your bicycle is an instance of the class of objects known as bicycles. A class is the blueprint from which individual objects are created. So it can be said as collection of same type of objects.

Inheritance

Inheritance is mainly used for code reusability.In the real world there are many objects that can be specialized. In OOP, a parent class can inherit its behavior and state to children classes. Inheritance means using the Predefined Code. This is very main feature of OOP, with the advantage of Inheritance we can use any code that is previously created. This concept was developed to manage generalization and specialization in OOP. Lets say we have a class called Car and Racing Car . Then the attributes like engine no. , color of the Class car can be inherited by the class Racing Car . The class Car will be Parent class , and the class Racing Car will be the derived class or child class

The following OO terms are commonly used names given to parent and child classes in OOP:

Superclass: Parent class.

Subclass: Child class.

Base class: Parent class.

Derived class: Child class

It can have many types.

single inheritance:-one derived class inherits property from one base class

multiple “ :- one derived class inherits property from many base classes.

multi level “ :-in this many derived classes are inherited from many base classes

hierarchical “ :-under this many derived classes can be inherited from single base class

hybrid “:-it’s a combination of hierarchical and multilevel.

Polymorphism:-

Its an important OOPs concept , Polymorphism means taking more than one forms .Polymorphism gives us the ultimate flexibility in extensibility. The ability to define more than one function with the same name is called Polymorphism.Polymorphism allows the programmer to treat derived class members just like their parent class’s members. More precisely, Polymorphism in object-oriented programming is the ability of objects belonging to different data types to respond to calls of methods of the same name .If a Dog is commanded to speak(), this may elicit a bark(). However, if a Pig is commanded to speak(), this may elicit an oink(). Each subclass overrides the speak() method inherited from the parent class Animal.

example is

Simple example of Polymorphism, look at an Account (it may be checking or saving assuming each attract different dividends) you walk in a bank and ask a teller what is my balance? or dividends? you don't need to specify what kind of an account you're having he will internally figure out looking at his books and provide you the details.

Differentiate between POP and OOPs.

Differentiate between POP and OOPs.
ans:
Here.we are going to understand about structured programming /also called procedure oriented programming and object oriented programming with the help of following description.

Concept of POP (procedural oriented programming):- Conventional programming using high level languages such as COBOL,FORTRAN and C, is commonly known as procedure oriented programming(POP).

Procedure oriented programming basically consists of writing a list of instructions(or actions) for the computer to follow, and organizing these instructions into groups known as functions.While we concentrate on the development , very little attention is given to the data that are being used by various functions.

Diagrammatically we can show POP as

Some characteristics (features) of Procedure Oriented Programming are :-

1) Emphasis is on doing things(algorithms).

2) Large programs are divided into smaller programs known as functions.

3) Most of the functions share global data.

4) Data more openly around the system from function to function.

5) Functions transform data from one form to another.

6) Employs top-down approach in program design.

OOP (Object Oriented Programming)concepts:-

The major motivating factor in the invention of object oriented is to remove some of the flaws encountered in the procedural oriented approach. Object oriented programming uses concept of “Object” and treats data as a critical element in the program development and does not allow it to flow freely around the system. It ties data more closely to the functions that operate on it, and protects it from accidental modifications from outside functions.

Some characteristics (features) of Object Oriented Programming are :-

1) Emphasis is on data rather than procedures or algorithms.

2) Programs are divided into what are known as objects.

3) Data structures are designed such that characterize the objects.

4) Functions that operate on the data are tied together in the data structure.

5) Data is hidden and cannot be accessed by external functions.

6) Objects may communicate with each other through functions.

7) New data and functions can be easily added whenever necessary.

8) Follows bottom-up approach in program design.

Explain about OSI model of networking.

Explain about OSI model of networking.
ans:-

OSI model:-

The OSI, or Open System Interconnection, model defines a networking framework for implementing protocols in seven layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer in one station, and proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and back up the hierarchy.

image courtesy:

https://www.lifewire.com/layers-of-the-osi-model-illustrated-818017

---------------------->Application (Layer 7)

This layer supports application and end-user processes.
Communication partners are identified, quality of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data syntax are identified.

----------------------->Presentation layer (layer 6):-

This layer provides independence from differences in data representation (encryption) by translating from application to network format, and vice versa.
The presentation layer works to transform data into the form that the application layer can accept.

------------------------>Session (Layer 5)

This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications.

----------------------->Transport (Layer 4)

This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control.
It ensures complete data transfer.

------------------------->Network (Layer 3)

This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as virtual circuits, for transmitting data from node to node

------------------------>Data Link (Layer 2)

At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits.
It furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow control and frame synchronization

------------------------->Physical (Layer 1)

This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal -- through the network at the electrical and mechanical level.
It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical aspects

Explain about client-server and peer-to-peer networking

Explain about client-server and peer-to-peer networking.