What is AI? Explain its components.

q)What is AI? Explain its components.

ans:-

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is usually defined as the science of making computers do things that require intelligence when done by humans. AI has had some success in limited, or simplified, domains. However, the five decades since the inception of AI have brought only very slow progress, and early optimism concerning the attainment of human-level intelligence has given way to an appreciation of the profound difficulty of the problem.

AI components are:

Learning

Learning is distinguished into a number of different forms. The simplest is learning by trial-and-error. For example, a simple program for solving mate-in-one chess problems might try out moves at random until one is found that achieves mate. The program remembers the successful move and next time the computer is given the same problem it is able to produce the answer immediately. The simple memorising of individual items--solutions to problems, words of vocabulary, etc.--is known as rote learning.

Reasoning

To reason is to draw inferences appropriate to the situation in hand. Inferences are classified as either deductive or inductive. An example of the former is "Fred is either in the museum or the cafŽ; he isn't in the cafŽ; so he's in the museum", and of the latter "Previous accidents just like this one have been caused by instrument failure; so probably this one was caused by instrument failure". The difference between the two is that in the deductive case, the truth of the premisses guarantees the truth of the conclusion, whereas in the inductive case, the truth of the premiss lends support to the conclusion that the accident was caused by instrument failure, but nevertheless further investigation might reveal that, despite the truth of the premiss, the conclusion is in fact false.

Problem-solving

Problems have the general form: given such-and-such data, find x. A huge variety of types of problem is addressed in AI. Some examples are: finding winning moves in board games; identifying people from their photographs; and planning series of movements that enable a robot to carry out a given task.

Perception

In perception the environment is scanned by means of various sense-organs, real or artificial, and processes internal to the perceiver analyse the scene into objects and their features and relationships. Analysis is complicated by the fact that one and the same object may present many different appearances on different occasions, depending on the angle from which it is viewed, whether or not parts of it are projecting shadows, and so forth.

Language-understanding

A language is a system of signs having meaning by convention. Traffic signs, for example, form a mini-language, it being a matter of convention that, for example, the hazard-ahead sign means hazard ahead. This meaning-by-convention that is distinctive of language is very different from what is called natural meaning, exemplified in statements like 'Those clouds mean rain' and 'The fall in pressure means the valve is malfunctioning'.

etc.

                                                      courtesy

                                                www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/pages/reference%20articles/what%20is%20ai.html

Explain the terms : polymorphism/inheritance/class/object.

q)Explain the terms : polymorphism/inheritance/class/object.

ans:-

These all are features of object oriented programming.Lets know about them.

Object:-

An object can be considered a "thing" with some attributes and  can perform a set of related activities. The set of activities that the object performs defines the object's behavior. For example, the hand can grip something or a Student(object) can give the name or address. They all have state and behavior. like ,Dogs have state (name, color, breed, hungry) and behavior (barking, fetching, wagging tail). Bicycles also have state (current gear, current pedal cadence, current speed) and behavior (changing gear, changing pedal cadence, applying brakes).

  For example if “customer” and “account.” are two objects in a program, then the customer object may send a message to the account object requesting for the bank balance. Each object contains data and code to manipulate the data. Objects can interact without having to know details of each other’s data or code.

Class:-

In the real world, you'll often find many individual objects all of the same kind. There may be thousands of other bicycles in existence, all of the same make and model. Each bicycle was built from the same set of blueprints and therefore contains the same components. In object-oriented terms, we say that your bicycle is an instance of the class of objects known as bicycles. A class is the blueprint from which individual objects are created. So it can be said as collection of same type of objects.

Inheritance

Inheritance is mainly used for code reusability.In the real world there are many objects that can be specialized. In OOP, a parent class can inherit its behavior and state to children classes. Inheritance means using the Predefined Code. This is very main feature of OOP, with the advantage of Inheritance we can use any code that is previously created. This concept was developed to manage generalization and specialization in OOP.  Lets say we have a class called Car and Racing Car . Then the attributes like engine no. , color of the Class car can be inherited by the class Racing Car . The class Car will be Parent class , and the class Racing Car will be the derived class or child class

The following OO terms are commonly used names given to parent and child classes in OOP:

Superclass: Parent class.

Subclass: Child class.

Base class: Parent class.

Derived class: Child class

It can have many types.

single inheritance:-one derived class inherits property from one base class

multiple              “  :- one derived class inherits property from many base classes.

multi level          “ :-in this many derived classes are inherited from many base classes

hierarchical       “ :-under this many derived classes can be inherited from single base class

hybrid                 “:-it’s a combination of hierarchical and multilevel.

Polymorphism:-

Its an important OOPs concept , Polymorphism means taking more than one forms .Polymorphism gives us the ultimate flexibility in extensibility. The ability to define more than one function with the same name is called Polymorphism.Polymorphism allows the programmer to treat derived class members just like their parent class’s members. More precisely, Polymorphism in object-oriented programming is the ability of objects belonging to different data types to respond to calls of methods of the same name .If a Dog is commanded to speak(), this may elicit a bark(). However, if a Pig is commanded to speak(), this may elicit an oink(). Each subclass overrides the speak() method inherited from the parent class Animal.

example is

Simple example of Polymorphism, look at an Account (it may be checking or saving assuming each attract different dividends) you walk in a bank and ask a teller what is my balance? or dividends? you don't need to specify what kind of an account you're having he will internally figure out looking at his books and provide you the details.

Differentiate between POP and OOPs.

Differentiate between POP and OOPs.
ans:
Here.we are going to understand about structured programming /also called procedure oriented programming and object oriented programming with the help of following description.

Concept of POP (procedural oriented programming):- Conventional programming using high level languages such as COBOL,FORTRAN and C, is commonly known as procedure oriented programming(POP).

                                       Procedure oriented programming basically consists of writing a list of instructions(or actions) for the computer to follow, and organizing these instructions into groups known as functions.While we concentrate on the development , very little attention is given to the data that are being used by various functions.

           Diagrammatically we can show POP as

Some characteristics (features) of Procedure Oriented Programming are :-

1) Emphasis is on doing things(algorithms).

2) Large programs are divided into smaller programs known as functions.

3) Most of the functions share global data.

4) Data more openly around the system from function to function.

5) Functions transform data from one form to another.

6) Employs top-down approach in program design.

OOP (Object Oriented Programming)concepts:-

The major motivating factor in the invention of object oriented is to remove some of the flaws encountered in the procedural oriented approach. Object oriented programming uses concept of “Object” and treats data as a critical element in the program development and does not allow it to flow freely around the system. It ties data more closely to the functions that operate on it, and protects it from accidental modifications from outside functions.

Some characteristics (features) of Object Oriented Programming are :-

1) Emphasis is on data rather than procedures or algorithms.

2) Programs are divided into what are known as objects.

3) Data structures are designed such that characterize the objects.

4) Functions that operate on the data are tied together in the data structure.

5) Data is hidden and cannot be accessed by external functions.

6) Objects may communicate with each other through functions.

7) New data and functions can be easily added whenever necessary.

8) Follows bottom-up approach in program design.

Explain about OSI model of networking.

Explain about OSI model of networking.
ans:-

OSI model:-

The OSI, or Open System Interconnection, model defines a networking framework for implementing protocols in seven layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer in one station, and proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and back up the hierarchy.

image courtesy:

https://www.lifewire.com/layers-of-the-osi-model-illustrated-818017

---------------------->Application (Layer 7)

• This layer supports application and end-user processes.
• Communication partners are identified, quality of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data syntax are identified.

----------------------->Presentation layer (layer 6):-

• This layer provides independence from differences in data representation (encryption) by translating from application to network format, and vice versa.
• The presentation layer works to transform data into the form that the application layer can accept.

------------------------>Session (Layer 5)

• This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications.

----------------------->Transport (Layer 4)

• This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control.
• It ensures complete data transfer.

------------------------->Network (Layer 3)

• This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as virtual circuits, for transmitting data from node to node

------------------------>Data Link (Layer 2)

• At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits.
• It furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow control and frame synchronization

------------------------->Physical (Layer 1)

• This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal -- through the network at the electrical and mechanical level.
• It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical aspects

Explain about client-server and peer-to-peer networking

Explain about client-server and peer-to-peer networking.

ans:-

Lets understand client-server and peer-to-peer networking with the help of following description .

They are types of networking on the basis of architecture:

Peer to peer(P2P):

• In this all the computers are treated equally.
• No one computer is server or client.
• All computers can be said working as client or server.
• Computers have self processing capability and do not rely on others.
• Computers have or can run with normal operating system like, XP, Me etc and application.
• Easy sharing of files and allows us to have chatting.
• failure of one does not mean others are down; networking goes on.
• If heavy load is given, they may not give same performance. etc
• low level security.

Client –server:

• In this, one or two computers work as server and left all work as clients.
• Clients computers give request to server for a task to be performed.
• Clients computers may or may not have self processing capability. they rely on server.
• Mostly servers use a powerful operating system like, Linux or Unix or Win advanced server2008 etc.
• Through server, the sharing of files is done.
• Everything is controlled by server so in the case of down, services can not be completed.
• under heavy load, many servers share the tasks.
• there is high level security in networking.
• High traffic towards servers while processing.

Differentiate between Internet and Intranet.

Differentiate between Internet and Intranet.

ans:-
Differences are given in following paragraph.

Internet:-

1) It contains large number of computers.It is completely open/global.

2) Its access is not limited to particular organization.

3)It has/occupies large area.

4) It is not that much secured as Intranet is.

5) It uses/contains different media and technologies.

6)To access Internet, only password from ISP is needed; no more authentication is needed.

7)It is decentralized system with many hosts..

etc.

Intranet:

1)An intranet is a private computer network that uses Internet Protocol technologies to securely share any part of an organization's information or operational systems within that organization.

2)Its access is limited to an organization.

3)It has  small coverage.

4)It is safe to access personal information.

5)Locals of intranet can access Internet; and Internet requirement is not mandatory for communication.

6) Employees of an organization can access their intranet by using authorized password by using Internet; otherwise not possible.

7)We can say it as a “Centralized controlling system”.

Explain any two communication channel.

Explain any two communication channel.

ans:-Lets know about guided medium.

Coaxial cable, or coax,

• It is an electrical cable with an inner conductor surrounded by a flexible, tubular insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield.
• The term coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outer shield sharing the same geometric axis.
• Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals, in applications such as connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas, computer network (Internet) connections, and distributing cable television signals and uses many connectors.
• It is available in two types thin (10base2; means 100 MBPS and upto 200 meter) and thick (10base5 coax;means 10 MBPS, and upto 5oo meter). They are different in diameter and bandwidth. Most of television operators use this. They are obsolete and no longer in use for computer networking

UTP:-

• Unshielded Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors (the forward and return conductors of a single circuit) are twisted together for the purposes of canceling out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external sources; for instance, electromagnetic radiation from unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables, and crosstalk between neighboring pairs. Different pairs(colour) have different function.It has 4-pairs of copper wires.
• UTP cable is also the most common cable used in computer networking. Modern Ethernet, the most common data networking standard, utilizes UTP cables.
• Twisted pair cabling is often used in data networks for short and medium length connections because of its relatively lower costs compared to optical fiber and coaxial cable.
• It has bandwidth up to 100mbps but can be increased up to 10000 mbps.
• The rate at which signal moves is ⅔ of velocity of light.
• It is available in different categories like CAT5,CAT6 ,CAT7 etc.